West Pacific

The Bering Strait connects Arctic shipping rivalry with continental defence US–Canadian coordination faces a persistent infrastructure challenge Chinese–Russian cooperation combines routes, resources and military reach

Japan’s inbound success coexists with constrained outbound mobility Exchange rates and household income affect international access Education and employment policies can reduce additional barriers Ja

Flexible and migrant labour helped subsidise China’s production-led growth Household consumption cannot deepen while income and social protection remain insecure Labour reform, hukou reform and local fiscal capacity must be treated as one policy problem

Japan’s inbound tourism boom conceals a persistent decline in outward mobility The historical record points to purchasing power rather than cultural reluctance Restoring mobility requires income, education and exchange-rate policy—not cheaper passports alone